rust-by-example

// From / Into (lossless)
impl From<i32> for Wrapped { fn from(v: i32) -> Self { Self(v) } }
let w: Wrapped = 42.into();   // Into comes for free

// TryFrom (fallible)
impl TryFrom<&str> for Email {
    type Error = EmailError;
    fn try_from(s: &str) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> { /* */ }
}

// as (numeric widening/narrowing — can lose data)
let big: i64 = 1_000_000;
let small: i32 = big as i32;       // ❌ silent truncation possible

// Deref (smart-pointer coercion, NOT polymorphism)
let s: String = "hi".to_string();
let s_ref: &str = &s;              // Deref<Target=str> kicks in

// if let — single-pattern destructure
if let Some(x) = opt { /* */ }

// while let — loop until None
while let Some(line) = reader.lines().next() { /* */ }

// match with @-binding
match point {
    Point { x: 0, y } => println!("on y-axis at {y}"),
    Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("on x-axis at {x}"),
    p @ Point { x: 10..=20, .. } => println!("in x-band: {p:?}"),
    _ => {}
}

// loop with label
'outer: loop {
    loop { break 'outer; }
}

// Closure captures by ref/move based on use
let v = vec![1, 2, 3];
let print = || println!("{:?}", v);       // borrows
let consume = move || { v.into_iter().sum() };  // moves

// Fn / FnMut / FnOnce — how a closure borrows its environment
fn apply(f: impl Fn()) { f() }            // can be called multiple times, immutable capture
fn apply_mut(mut f: impl FnMut()) { f() } // mutable capture
fn apply_once(f: impl FnOnce() -> i32) -> i32 { f() }  // consumes captured

// src/lib.rs
pub mod network;                  // src/network.rs OR src/network/mod.rs
pub use network::Client;          // re-export

// src/network.rs
pub struct Client { /* */ }
pub fn connect() { /* */ }

// Using items
use std::collections::HashMap;
use std::io::{self, Read};        // io module + Read trait
use crate::network::Client;       // absolute
use super::helper;                 // parent
use self::inner::Item;            // current

// Generic function with bound
fn first<T>(xs: &[T]) -> Option<&T> { xs.first() }

// Generic with where clause
fn sum<T>(xs: &[T]) -> T where T: Default + std::ops::AddAssign + Copy {
    let mut acc = T::default();
    for x in xs { acc += *x; }
    acc
}

// Generic struct
struct Pair<A, B> { a: A, b: B }

impl<A: Clone, B: Clone> Pair<A, B> {
    fn swapped(&self) -> Pair<B, A> { Pair { a: self.b.clone(), b: self.a.clone() } }
}

// Definition with default method
pub trait Summary {
    fn summarize(&self) -> String;
    fn default_summary(&self) -> String { format!("(no summary)") }
}

// Trait object (dynamic dispatch)
fn print_summary(item: &dyn Summary) { println!("{}", item.summarize()); }

// Generic (static dispatch)
fn print_summary_generic<T: Summary>(item: &T) { println!("{}", item.summarize()); }

// Associated type
trait Container { type Item; fn first(&self) -> Option<&Self::Item>; }

use std::fs;
use std::io;
use std::num::ParseIntError;

// ? propagates with From conversion
fn read_count() -> Result<i32, io::Error> {
    let s: String = fs::read_to_string("count.txt")?;
    Ok(s.trim().parse().unwrap_or(0))   // or proper error mapping
}

// Custom error with thiserror
#[derive(thiserror::Error, Debug)]
enum Error {
    #[error("io: {0}")] Io(#[from] io::Error),
    #[error("parse: {0}")] Parse(#[from] ParseIntError),
    #[error("not found: {key}")] NotFound { key: String },
}

// Application-layer catch-all with anyhow
fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    let x: i32 = "5".parse()?;
    Ok(())
}

#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]   // generate traits
struct User { id: u32 }

#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]          // conditional compilation
fn setup() { /* */ }

#[inline]                            // hint to inline (rarely matters)
fn fast() {}

#[allow(dead_code)]                  // suppress warning
struct Unused;

#[non_exhaustive]                    // allow adding variants
enum Event { Login }

// Raw pointer dereference
let x = 42;
let ptr: *const i32 = &x;
let val = unsafe { *ptr };

// Splitting a slice (needs unsafe for non-overlapping aliasing)
let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4];
let (left, right) = v.split_at_mut(2);   // safe wrapper

// Calling C ABI
extern "C" { fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; }
let a = unsafe { abs(-5) };

// Union (unsafe to read)
#[repr(C)]
union Value { i: i32, f: f32 }

// Derive (most common)
#[derive(Debug, Clone, serde::Serialize)]
struct Config { /* */ }

// Attribute macro
#[tokio::main]
async fn main() { /* */ }

// Function-like macro
let html = html! { <div>Hello</div> };

#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
fn halt() {
    unsafe { std::arch::asm!("hlt", options(nostack)); }
}